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The river gives its name to several geographical and political entities including the Thames Valley, a region of England centred around the river between Oxford and west London, the Thames Gateway, the area centred around the tidal Thames, and the Thames Estuary to the east of London. The tidal section of the river is covered in more detail under Tideway.

Private sector activity, the engine of economic growth, also suffered severely as a result of declining incomes and failing demand, political uncertainty and the impact of closures and violence. According to the Palestinian Federation of Industries, by July 2002, 17 per cent of all business in the occupied Palestinian territory had shut down and only 7 per cent were operating at pre-crisis levels.

Private sector activity, the engine of economic growth, also suffered severely as a result of declining incomes and failing demand, political uncertainty and the impact of closures and violence. According to the Palestinian Federation of Industries, by July 2002, 17 per cent of all business in the occupied Palestinian territory had shut down and only 7 per cent were operating at pre-crisis levels.

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History The contemporary wedding cake has grown out of many traditions. One of the first traditions began in Ancient Rome; bread was broken over the bride’s head to bring good fortune to the couple.[2] In medieval England cakes were stacked as high as possible for the bride and groom to kiss over, if they successfully kissed over the stack they were guaranteed a prosperous life.[3] From this the Croquembouche was created. The legend of this cake says that a pastry chef, visiting medieval England, witnessed their tradition of piling sweet rolls between the bride and groom which they would attempt to kiss over without knocking them all down. The pastry chef then went back to France and piled sweet rolls up into a tower to make the first Croquembouche.[2] In some places where “bride’s pie” was served, guests were expected to have a piece out of politeness←; it was considered very rude to not have a piece. One of the traditions of bride’s pie was to place a ring in the middle and the maiden who found it would be the next to marry, similar to the modern tradition of catching the flower bouquet. Bride pie developed into bride cake in the 17th century though the bride’s pie remained popular until the 19th century. The bride cake was traditionally a plum or fruit cake.[1] Fruit cakes were a sign of fertility and prosperity which helped them gain popularity. The bride’s cake eventually transformed into the modern wedding cake. [4] In the 1600s two cakes were made, one for the bride and one for the groom. When the two cake began being served together, the groom's cake was typically the darker colored, rich fruitcake. In contrast, the bride’s cake was usually a simple pound cake with white icing because white was a sign of virginity and purity.[5] The white coloring also had other meanings for people in the 17th century. Sugar was becoming easier to obtain, but the more refined and whiter sugars were expensive; having a very pure white frosting showed off the wealth of the family.[6] When Queen Victoria used white icing on her cake it gained a new title, royal icing.[7] The modern wedding cake as we know it now originated with Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany’s marriage and wedding cake in 1882; his was the first to actually be completely edible. His cakes were iced, and after the ice hardened, they were stacked on top of each other to create a tiered cake, using the icing for support was not common before his wedding. In 1902, pillars to separate and support the tiers of the layered cake were developed. The tiers represented prosperity and were also a status symbol for the family who could afford a tiered cake.[8] [edit]Symbolism One of the most obvious symbolic traditions is the cake’s white color to symbolize virginity and purity. Cutting the cake together as bride and groom symbolizes their first task in married life. However, this tradition actually originated because the wife needed her husband’s strength to cut through the thick, hard icing on the early modern wedding cake. By feeding each other the bride and groom are symbolizing their commitment to provide for each other.[9] [edit]Superstitions The wedding cake is surrounded by superstitions; its origins are even based on one. The cake being broken over the bride’s head was to bring good fortune to the couple. The guests would eat the crumbs from the broken cake for good luck. When the bride pie was served, often a ring was placed in the middle and the maiden who found it would be the next to marry. Every guest was expected to have a piece because the pie was assurance that the couple would be happy together, it was very rude for a guest to not have any of the pie.[10] Another superstition was that bachelorettes should sleep with a piece of the cake under her pillow and she would dream of the person fate intended for her. Another way to dream of their future husbands was for the bride and groom to pass pieces of cake through the bride’s wedding ring and then the bachelorette would then sleep with a crumb of it in her left stocking and the rest under her pillow.[11] [edit]Modern adaptations A contemporary wedding cake Wedding cake toppers are small models that sit on top of the cake, normally a representation of a bride and groom in formal wedding attire. This custom was dominant in US weddings in the 1950s where it represented the concept of togetherness.[12] Wedding toppers today are often figures that indicate shared hobbies or other passions, if they are used at all.[12] Wedding cakes can also be decorated with flowers. In the United Kingdom, the traditional wedding cake is made from a rich fruitcake, although many modern cakes now consist of either vanilla sponge, chocolate sponge or carrot cake. Most cakes are between three and five tiers in height. Among some more elaborate cakes the United Kingdom see are those prepared for the Royal Weddings.

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