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democracy surely is not an end in itself .
लोकतंत्र निश्चय ही अपने आप में कोई लक्ष्य नहीं है ।
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audit is a means to an end rather than an end in itself .
लेखापरीक्षा साध्य की दिशा में एक साधन है न कि स्वयं में एक साध्य ।
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needless to say that a description of nature is not an end in itself .
कहने की आवश्यकता नहीं कि प्रकृति - वर्णन स्वयं में लक्ष्य नहीं हुआ करता ।
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technology seems to have created an illusion that it is an end in itself , not merely a means .
ऐसा लगता है कि टेक्नालाजी ने यह भ्रम पैदा कर दिया है कि वह अपने आप में एक अंतिम प्राप्य है न किसी लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति का साधन ।
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for her , social service was not an end in itself , but only a means to the service of god .
उनके लिए समाज - सेवा अपने आप में एक लक्ष्य न होकर ईश्वर की सेवा का एक माध्यम मात्र थी ।
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for hpcl , success is never an end in itself and hence the refineries will go through further upgradation in future .
एचपीसीएल के लिए , सफलता अपने आप में एक अंत और इसलिए इस रिफाइनरियों भविष्य में और अधिक उन्नत बनाने के माध्यम से जाना जाएगा कभी नहीं रहा है .
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as has been mentioned earlier , chaitanya - worship was an end in itself to him as to others of the bengal vaishnava school .
जैसा पहले कहा जा चुका है बंगाल के वैष्णव सप्रंदाय के अन्य जनों की तरह ही उनके लिए भी चैतन्य पूजा लक्ष्य थी ।
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from the point of view of the arrangement of the plot , the story comes to an end in this ucchvasa itself and there is nothing left for further narration .
कथावस्तु के विन्यास की दृष्टि से इस उच्छवास में कथा का समापन हो जाता है , और कुछ कहने को शेष नहीं रह जाता ।
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power thus became ' less an instrumental value viewed from the point of ' ' view of the community as a whole and instead became an end in itself .
जो अधिकार पहले पूरे समुदाय की ओर से साधन के रुप में व्यवहृत होता था वह अब साधन न रहकर स्वयं ही साध्य बन गया ।
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the pupal period can come to an end in about five days after which the moth comes out and starts a new generation .
पांच दिन के प्यूपा अवस्था समाप्त हो जाती है हौर पतंग बाहर निकल कर नयी पीढ़ी की शुरूआत करते हैं ।
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however , strict islamic law came to an end in the eighteenth century , after the arrival of the british in india .
अंग्रेजों के भारत आगमन के बाद , अठारहवीं शताब्दी में कठोर इस्लामी विधि का अंत हो गया .
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the phenomenon of colonialism , which has happily come to an end in our time , also arose out of the dynamics of economic exploitation .
बड़ी प्रसन्नता की बात है कि हमारे दौर में उपनिवेशवाद समाप्त हो चुका है , लेकिन इसका जन्म आर्थिक शोषण के चलते ही हुआ था ।
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the kingdom came to an end in 1565 , when ramrai was defeated at talikota by the joint efforts of adilshahi , nizamshahi , qutubshahi and baridshahi .
यह साम्राज्य 1565 में पूरी तरह समाप्त हो गया जब आदिलशाही , निजामशाही , कुतुब शाही और बरीद शाही के संयुक्त प्रयासों द्वारा तालीकोटा में रामराय को पराजित किया गया ।
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after the failure of the cripps mission , no steps were taken for the solution of the indian constitutional problem until the war in europe came to an end in may , 1945 .
क्रिप्स मिशन की विफलता के बाद , मई , 1945 में यूरोप में युद्ध की समाप्ति तक भारत की संवैधानिक समस्या के समाधान के लिए कोई कदम नहीं उठाया गया .
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defeat radical islam : only when muslims see that this is a route doomed to failure will they be open to alternatives . appreciate stability : stability must not be an end in itself , but its absence likely leads to anarchy and radicalization .
स्थिरता की सराहना होगी - स्थिरता ही अपने में अंतिम लक्ष्य नहीं होना चाहिए लेकिन इसके अभाव से अव्यवस्था और कट्टरता पनपती है .
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in the poems of balaka published two years earlier his imagination had taken wings and soaring heavenwards had watched with serene confidence the changeless beauty of the changing universe , in which eveiything is in perpetual motion , moving towards something beyond , no one knows what or where , but the motion itself was joy , an end in itself .
दो वर्ष पूर्व प्रकाशित ? बालक ? में उनकी कविताओं को जैसे कल्पनाओं के पंख लग गए थे और वे आकाश की ओर उड़ान भरती दिखती थीं - परिवर्तनशील विश्व में शाश्वत सौंदर्य से और एक गंभीर आत्मविश्वास से भरी - जिसमें हर वस्तु अपनी शाश्वत गति में तरंगित है और किसी अनंतर सत्ता के चारों ओर घूम रही है .
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about 1500 bc while the dravidian culture was flourishing in the south , the dark period following the destruction of the indus valley civilisation was coming to an end in the north - west and immigrant aryans were laying the foundations of a new culture infused with vigour and vitality .
ईसा के लगभग 1500 वर्ष पूर्व , जबकि दक्षिण में द्रविड़ संस्कृति विकसित हो रही थी , तब सिंधु घाटी सभ्यता के विनाश के बाद , उत्तर - पश्चिम में अंधकार का समय समाप्त हो रहा था और अप्रवासी आर्य उत्साह और जीवन शक़्ति से भरपूर नयी संस्कृति की नीव रख रहे थे .
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r . c . dutt wrote that the oppression of the indigo planters in bengal continued for half a century until the people of bengal rose and resisted ; and the cultivation of indigo by the european planters came to an end in most parts of bengal after the indigo disturbances of 1859 .
आर . सी . दत्त ने लिखा है कि बंगाल के नील उत्पादकों का शोषण आधी शताब्दी तक चलता रहा , जब तक कि बंगाल निवासियों ने एक जुट होकर इसका विरोध नहीं किया . सन् 1859 के नील उपद्रवों के बाद बंगाल के अनेक भागों में यूरोपियनों के द्वारा नील की खेती समाप्त हो गयी .
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therefore , the author of the book samkhya does not consider the reward of paradise a special gain , because it has an end and is not eternal , and because this kind of life resembles the life of this our world ; for it is not free from ambition and envy , having in itself various degrees and classes of existence , whilst cupidity and desire do not cease save where there is perfect equality .
इसलिए ? सांख़्य ? नामक ग्रंथ का लेखक स्वर्ग की प्राप्ति के रूप में मिले पुरस्कार को कोई विशेष लाभ नहीं मानता , क़्योंकि वह शाश्वत नहीं है बल्कि उसकी भी एक सीमा है . दूसरा कारण वह यह मानता है कि इस प्रकार का जीवन हमारे इसी संसार के जीवन से बहुत मिलता - जुलता है क़्योंकि वह इच्छा और द्वेष से परे नहीं है और उसमें भी जीवन की कई श्रेणियां हैं और वर्ग हैं जहां केवल उन स्थितियों को छोड़कर जहां संपूर्ण समता आ चुकी है अर्थ - लिप्सा और स्पृहा का अंत नहीं होता .
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fukuyama francis fukuyama from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia yoshihiro francis fukuyama image from bloggingheads.tv podcast fukuyama in 2005 born october 27, 1952 (age 63) chicago, illinois, u.s website fukuyama.stanford.edu institutions george mason university[1] johns hopkins university stanford university main interests developing nations governance international political economy nation-building and democratization strategic and security issues notable ideas end of history influences [show] yoshihiro francis fukuyama (born october 27, 1952) is an american political scientist, political economist, and author. fukuyama is known for his book the end of history and the last man (1992), which argued that the worldwide spread of liberal democracies and free market capitalism of the west and its lifestyle may signal the end point of humanity's sociocultural evolution and become the final form of human government. however, his subsequent book trust: social virtues and creation of prosperity (1995) modified his earlier position to acknowledge that culture cannot be cleanly separated from economics. fukuyama is also associated with the rise of the neoconservative movement,[2] from which he has since distanced himself.[3] fukuyama has been a senior fellow at the center on democracy, development and the rule of law at stanford university since july 2010.[4] before that, he served as a professor and director of the international development program at the school of advanced international studies of the johns hopkins university. previously, he was omer l. and nancy hirst professor of public policy at the school of public policy at george mason university.[4] he is a council member of the international forum for democratic studies founded by the national endowment for democracy and was a member of the political science department of the rand corporation.[5] contents 1 early life 2 education 3 writings 3.1 neoconservatism 3.2 fukuyama's current views 4 affiliations 5 personal life 6 see also 7 selected bibliography 7.1 scholarly works (partial list) 7.2 books 7.3 essays 8 see also 9 references 10 external links early life francis fukuyama was born in the hyde park neighborhood of chicago. his paternal grandfather fled the russo-japanese war in 1905 and started a shop on the west coast before being interned in the second world war.[6] his father, yoshio fukuyama, a second-generation japanese american, was trained as a minister in the congregational church, received a doctorate in sociology from the university of chicago, and taught religious studies.[7][8][9] his mother, toshiko kawata fukuyama, was born in kyoto, japan, and was the daughter of shiro kawata, founder of the economics department of kyoto university and first president of osaka city university.[10] francis grew up in manhattan as an only child, had little contact with japanese culture, and did not learn japanese.[7][8] his family moved to state college, pennsylvania in 1967.[10] education fukuyama received his bachelor of arts degree in classics from cornell university, where he studied political philosophy under allan bloom.[8][11] he initially pursued graduate studies in comparative literature at yale university, going to paris for six months to study under roland barthes and jacques derrida, but became disillusioned and switched to political science at harvard university.[8] there, he studied with samuel p. huntington and harvey mansfield, among others. he earned his ph.d. in political science at harvard for his thesis on soviet threats to intervene in the middle east.[8][11] in 1979, he joined the global policy think tank rand corporation.[8] fukuyama lived at the telluride house and has been affiliated with the telluride association since his undergraduate years at cornell, an education enterprise that was home to other significant leaders and intellectuals, including steven weinberg, paul wolfowitz and kathleen sullivan. fukuyama was the omer l. and nancy hirst professor of public policy in the school of public policy at george mason university from 1996 to 2000. until july 10, 2010, he was the bernard l. schwartz professor of international political economy and director of the international development program at the paul h. nitze school of advanced international studies of johns hopkins university in washington, d.c. he is now olivier nomellini senior fellow and resident in the center on democracy, development, and the rule of law at the freeman spogli institute for international studies at stanford university.[11] writings fukuyama is best known as the author of the end of history and the last man, in which he argued that the progression of human history as a struggle between ideologies is largely at an end, with the world settling on liberal democracy after the end of the cold war and the fall of the berlin wall in 1989. fukuyama predicted the eventual global triumph of political and economic liberalism: what we may be witnessing is not just the end of the cold war, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such.... that is, the end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of western liberal democracy as the final form of human government. authors like ralf dahrendorf argued in 1990 that the essay gave fukuyama his 15 minutes of fame, which will be followed by a slide into obscurity.[12][13] he continued to remain a relevant and cited public intellectual leading american communitarian amitai etzioni to declare him "one of the few enduring public intellectuals. they are often media stars who are eaten up and spat out after their 15 minutes. but he has lasted."[14] one of the main reasons for the massive criticism against the end of history was the aggressive stance that it took towards postmodernism. postmodern philosophy had, in fukuyama's opinion, undermined the ideology behind liberal democracy, leaving the western world in a potentially weaker position.[15] the fact that marxism and fascism had been proven untenable for practical use while liberal democracy still thrived was reason enough to embrace the hopeful attitude of the progressive era, as this hope for the future was what made a society worth struggling to maintain. postmodernism, which, by this time, had become embedded in the cultural consciousness, offered no hope and nothing to sustain a necessary sense of community, instead relying only on lofty intellectual premises.[16] being a work that both praised the ideals of a group that had fallen out of favor and challenged the premises of the group that had replaced them, it was bound to create some controversy. fukuyama has written a number of other books, among them trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity and our posthuman future: consequences of the biotechnology revolution. in the latter, he qualified his original "end of history" thesis, arguing that since biotechnology increasingly allows humans to control their own evolution, it may allow humans to alter human nature, thereby putting liberal democracy at risk.[17] one possible outcome could be that an altered human nature could end in radical inequality. he is a fierce enemy of transhumanism, an intellectual movement asserting that posthumanity is a desirable goal. in another work, the great disruption: human nature and the reconstruction of social order, fukuyama explores the origins of social norms, and analyses the current disruptions in the fabric of our moral traditions, which he considers as arising from a shift from the manufacturing to the information age. this shift is, he thinks, normal and will prove self-correcting, given the intrinsic human need for social norms and rules. in 2006, in america at the crossroads, fukuyama discusses the history of neoconservatism, with particular focus on its major tenets and political implications. he outlines his rationale for supporting the bush administration, as well as where he believes it has gone wrong. in 2008, fukuyama published the book falling behind: explaining the development gap between latin america and the united states, which resulted from research and a conference funded by grupo mayan to gain understanding on why latin america, once far wealthier than north america, fell behind in terms of development in only a matter of centuries. discussing this book at a 2009 conference, fukuyama outlined his belief that inequality within latin american nations is a key impediment to growth. an unequal distribution of wealth, he stated, leads to social upheaval, which then results in stunted growth.[18] neoconservatism as a key reagan administration contributor to the formulation of the reagan doctrine, fukuyama is an important figure in the rise of neoconservatism, although his works came out years after irving kristol's 1972 book crystallized neoconservatism.[19] fukuyama was active in the project for the new american century think tank starting in 1997, and as a member co-signed the organization's 1998 letter recommending that president bill clinton support iraqi insurgencies in the overthrow of then-president of iraq saddam hussein.[20] he was also among forty co-signers of william kristol's september 20, 2001 letter to president george w. bush after the september 11, 2001 attacks that suggested the u.s. not only "capture or kill osama bin laden", but also embark upon "a determined effort to remove saddam hussein from power in iraq".[21] in a new york times article from february 2006, fukuyama, in considering the ongoing iraq war, stated: "what american foreign policy needs is not a return to a narrow and cynical realism, but rather the formulation of a 'realistic wilsonianism' that better matches means to ends."[22] in regard to neoconservatism he went on to say: "what is needed now are new ideas, neither neoconservative nor realist, for how america is to relate to the rest of the world – ideas that retain the neoconservative belief in the universality of human rights, but without its illusions about the efficacy of american power and hegemony to bring these ends about."[22] fukuyama's current views fukuyama began to distance himself from the neoconservative agenda of the bush administration, citing its excessive militarism and embrace of unilateral armed intervention, particularly in the middle east. by late 2003, fukuyama had voiced his growing opposition to the iraq war[23] and called for donald rumsfeld's resignation as secretary of defense.[24] at an annual dinner of the american enterprise institute in february 2004, dick cheney and charles krauthammer declared the beginning of a unipolar era under american hegemony. "all of these people around me were cheering wildly,"[25] fukuyama remembers. he believes that the iraq war was being blundered. "all of my friends had taken leave of reality."[25] he has not spoken to paul wolfowitz (previously a good friend) since.[25] fukuyama declared he would not be voting for bush,[26] and that the bush administration had made three major mistakes:[citation needed] overstating the threat of radical islam to the us failing to foresee the fierce negative reaction to its "benevolent hegemony". from the very beginning showing a negative attitude toward the united nations and other intergovernmental organizations and not seeing that it would increase anti-americanism in other countries misjudging what was needed to bring peace in iraq and being overly optimistic about the success with which social engineering of western values could be applied to iraq and the middle east in general. fukuyama believes the us has a right to promote its own values in the world, but more along the lines of what he calls "realistic wilsonianism", with military intervention only as a last resort and only in addition to other measures. a latent military force is more likely to have an effect than actual deployment. the us spends 43% of global military spending,[27] but iraq shows there are limits to its effectiveness. the us should instead stimulate political and economic development and gain a better understanding of what happens in other countries. the best instruments are setting a good example and providing education and, in many cases, money. the secret of development, be it political or economic, is that it never comes from outsiders, but always from people in the country itself. one thing the us proved to have excelled in during the aftermath of world war ii was the formation of international institutions. a return to support for these structures would combine american power with international legitimacy. but such measures require a lot of patience. this is the central thesis of his 2006 work america at the crossroads. in a 2006 essay in the new york times magazine strongly critical of the invasion, he identified neoconservatism with leninism. he wrote that neoconservatives:[28] believed that history can be pushed along with the right application of power and will. leninism was a tragedy in its bolshevik version, and it has returned as farce when practiced by the united states. neoconservatism, as both a political symbol and a body of thought, has evolved into something i can no longer support. fukuyama announced the end of the neoconservative moment and argued for the demilitarization of the war on terrorism:[28] [w]ar is the wrong metaphor for the broader struggle, since wars are fought at full intensity and have clear beginnings and endings. meeting the jihadist challenge is more of a "long, twilight struggle" [quoting john f. kennedy's inaugural address] whose core is not a military campaign but a political contest for the hearts and minds of ordinary muslims around the world. fukuyama endorsed barack obama in the 2008 us presidential election. he states:[29] i'm voting for barack obama this november for a very simple reason. it is hard to imagine a more disastrous presidency than that of george w. bush. it was bad enough that he launched an unnecessary war and undermined the standing of the united states throughout the world in his first term. but in the waning days of his administration, he is presiding over a collapse of the american financial system and broader economy that will have consequences for years to come. as a general rule, democracies don't work well if voters do not hold political parties accountable for failure. while john mccain is trying desperately to pretend that he never had anything to do with the republican party, i think it would be a travesty to reward the republicans for failure on such a grand scale. affiliations between 2006 and 2008, fukuyama advised muammar gaddafi as part of the monitor group, a consultancy firm based in cambridge, ma.[30] in august 2005, fukuyama co-founded the american interest, a quarterly magazine devoted to the broad theme of "america in the world". he is currently chairman of the editorial board.[11] fukuyama was a member of the rand corporation's political science department from 1979 to 1980, 1983 to 1989, and 1995 to 1996. he is now a member of the board of trustees.[11] fukuyama was a member of the president's council on bioethics from 2001 to 2004.[11] fukuyama is a fellow of the world academy of art and science (waas). fukuyama is on the steering committee for the scooter libby legal defense trust.[31] fukuyama is a long-time friend of libby. they served together in the state department in the 1980s. fukuyama is a member of the board of counselors for the pyle center of northeast asian studies at the national bureau of asian research.[32] fukuyama is on the board of global financial integrity. fukuyama is on the executive board of the inter-american dialogue. personal life fukuyama is a part-time photographer. he also has a keen interest in early-american furniture, which he reproduces by hand.[33] he is keenly interested in sound recording and reproduction, saying, "these days i seem to spend as much time thinking about gear as i do analyzing politics for my day job."[25] fukuyama is married to laura holmgren, whom he met when she was a ucla graduate student after he started working for the rand corporation.[8][11] he dedicated his book trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity to her. they live in california, with their three children, julia, david, and john away in school. see also daniel bell selected bibliography scholarly works (partial list) the soviet union and iraq since 1968, rand research report, 1980 books the end of history and the last man. free press, 1992. isbn 0-02-910975-2 trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity. free press, 1995. isbn 0-02-910976-0 the great disruption: human nature and the reconstitution of social order. free press. 1999. isbn 0-684-84530-x our posthuman future: consequences of the biotechnology revolution. new york, ny: farrar, straus and giroux. 2002. isbn 0-374-23643-7 state-building: governance and world order in the 21st century. ithaca, ny: cornell university press. 2004. isbn 0-8014-4292-3 america at the crossroads: democracy, power, and the neoconservative legacy. new haven, ct: yale university press. 2006. isbn 0-300-11399-4 us edition after the neo cons: where the right went wrong. london: profile books. 2006. isbn 1-86197-922-3 uk edition falling behind: explaining the development gap between latin america and the united states (editor). new york, ny: oxford university press. 2008. isbn 978-0-19-536882-6 the origins of political order. new york, ny: farrar, straus and giroux. 2011. isbn 978-1-846-68256-8 political order and political decay: from the industrial revolution to the globalization of democracy. new york: farrar, straus and giroux. 2014. isbn 978-0-374-22735-7 essays the end of history?, the national interest, summer 1989 women and the evolution of world politics, foreign affairs october 1998 immigrants and family values, the immigration reader 1998. isbn 1-55786-916-2 human nature and the reconstruction of social order, the atlantic monthly, may 1999 social capital and civil society, paper prepared for delivery at the international monetary fund conference on second generation reforms, october 1, 1999 the neoconservative moment, the national interest, summer 2004 after neoconservatism, the new york times magazine, february 19, 2006 supporter's voice now turns on bush, the new york times magazine, march 14, 2006 why shouldn't i change my mind?, los angeles times, april 9, 2006 the fall of america, inc. newsweek, october 13, 2008 the new nationalism and the strategic architecture of northeast asia asia policy january 2007 left out, the american interest, january 2011 is china next?, the wall street journal, march 12, 2011 the future of history; can liberal democracy survive the decline of the middle class?, foreign affairs, january/february 2012 what is governance? governance (journal), march 2013
francis fukuyama from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia yoshihiro francis fukuyama image from bloggingheads.tv podcast fukuyama in 2005 born october 27, 1952 (age 63) chicago, illinois, u.s website fukuyama.stanford.edu institutions george mason university[1] johns hopkins university stanford university main interests developing nations governance international political economy nation-building and democratization strategic and security issues notable ideas end of history influences [show] yoshihiro francis fukuyama (born october 27, 1952) is an american political scientist, political economist, and author. fukuyama is known for his book the end of history and the last man (1992), which argued that the worldwide spread of liberal democracies and free market capitalism of the west and its lifestyle may signal the end point of humanity's sociocultural evolution and become the final form of human government. however, his subsequent book trust: social virtues and creation of prosperity (1995) modified his earlier position to acknowledge that culture cannot be cleanly separated from economics. fukuyama is also associated with the rise of the neoconservative movement,[2] from which he has since distanced himself.[3] fukuyama has been a senior fellow at the center on democracy, development and the rule of law at stanford university since july 2010.[4] before that, he served as a professor and director of the international development program at the school of advanced international studies of the johns hopkins university. previously, he was omer l. and nancy hirst professor of public policy at the school of public policy at george mason university.[4] he is a council member of the international forum for democratic studies founded by the national endowment for democracy and was a member of the political science department of the rand corporation.[5] contents 1 early life 2 education 3 writings 3.1 neoconservatism 3.2 fukuyama's current views 4 affiliations 5 personal life 6 see also 7 selected bibliography 7.1 scholarly works (partial list) 7.2 books 7.3 essays 8 see also 9 references 10 external links early life francis fukuyama was born in the hyde park neighborhood of chicago. his paternal grandfather fled the russo-japanese war in 1905 and started a shop on the west coast before being interned in the second world war.[6] his father, yoshio fukuyama, a second-generation japanese american, was trained as a minister in the congregational church, received a doctorate in sociology from the university of chicago, and taught religious studies.[7][8][9] his mother, toshiko kawata fukuyama, was born in kyoto, japan, and was the daughter of shiro kawata, founder of the economics department of kyoto university and first president of osaka city university.[10] francis grew up in manhattan as an only child, had little contact with japanese culture, and did not learn japanese.[7][8] his family moved to state college, pennsylvania in 1967.[10] education fukuyama received his bachelor of arts degree in classics from cornell university, where he studied political philosophy under allan bloom.[8][11] he initially pursued graduate studies in comparative literature at yale university, going to paris for six months to study under roland barthes and jacques derrida, but became disillusioned and switched to political science at harvard university.[8] there, he studied with samuel p. huntington and harvey mansfield, among others. he earned his ph.d. in political science at harvard for his thesis on soviet threats to intervene in the middle east.[8][11] in 1979, he joined the global policy think tank rand corporation.[8] fukuyama lived at the telluride house and has been affiliated with the telluride association since his undergraduate years at cornell, an education enterprise that was home to other significant leaders and intellectuals, including steven weinberg, paul wolfowitz and kathleen sullivan. fukuyama was the omer l. and nancy hirst professor of public policy in the school of public policy at george mason university from 1996 to 2000. until july 10, 2010, he was the bernard l. schwartz professor of international political economy and director of the international development program at the paul h. nitze school of advanced international studies of johns hopkins university in washington, d.c. he is now olivier nomellini senior fellow and resident in the center on democracy, development, and the rule of law at the freeman spogli institute for international studies at stanford university.[11] writings fukuyama is best known as the author of the end of history and the last man, in which he argued that the progression of human history as a struggle between ideologies is largely at an end, with the world settling on liberal democracy after the end of the cold war and the fall of the berlin wall in 1989. fukuyama predicted the eventual global triumph of political and economic liberalism: what we may be witnessing is not just the end of the cold war, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such.... that is, the end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of western liberal democracy as the final form of human government. authors like ralf dahrendorf argued in 1990 that the essay gave fukuyama his 15 minutes of fame, which will be followed by a slide into obscurity.[12][13] he continued to remain a relevant and cited public intellectual leading american communitarian amitai etzioni to declare him "one of the few enduring public intellectuals. they are often media stars who are eaten up and spat out after their 15 minutes. but he has lasted."[14] one of the main reasons for the massive criticism against the end of history was the aggressive stance that it took towards postmodernism. postmodern philosophy had, in fukuyama's opinion, undermined the ideology behind liberal democracy, leaving the western world in a potentially weaker position.[15] the fact that marxism and fascism had been proven untenable for practical use while liberal democracy still thrived was reason enough to embrace the hopeful attitude of the progressive era, as this hope for the future was what made a society worth struggling to maintain. postmodernism, which, by this time, had become embedded in the cultural consciousness, offered no hope and nothing to sustain a necessary sense of community, instead relying only on lofty intellectual premises.[16] being a work that both praised the ideals of a group that had fallen out of favor and challenged the premises of the group that had replaced them, it was bound to create some controversy. fukuyama has written a number of other books, among them trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity and our posthuman future: consequences of the biotechnology revolution. in the latter, he qualified his original "end of history" thesis, arguing that since biotechnology increasingly allows humans to control their own evolution, it may allow humans to alter human nature, thereby putting liberal democracy at risk.[17] one possible outcome could be that an altered human nature could end in radical inequality. he is a fierce enemy of transhumanism, an intellectual movement asserting that posthumanity is a desirable goal. in another work, the great disruption: human nature and the reconstruction of social order, fukuyama explores the origins of social norms, and analyses the current disruptions in the fabric of our moral traditions, which he considers as arising from a shift from the manufacturing to the information age. this shift is, he thinks, normal and will prove self-correcting, given the intrinsic human need for social norms and rules. in 2006, in america at the crossroads, fukuyama discusses the history of neoconservatism, with particular focus on its major tenets and political implications. he outlines his rationale for supporting the bush administration, as well as where he believes it has gone wrong. in 2008, fukuyama published the book falling behind: explaining the development gap between latin america and the united states, which resulted from research and a conference funded by grupo mayan to gain understanding on why latin america, once far wealthier than north america, fell behind in terms of development in only a matter of centuries. discussing this book at a 2009 conference, fukuyama outlined his belief that inequality within latin american nations is a key impediment to growth. an unequal distribution of wealth, he stated, leads to social upheaval, which then results in stunted growth.[18] neoconservatism as a key reagan administration contributor to the formulation of the reagan doctrine, fukuyama is an important figure in the rise of neoconservatism, although his works came out years after irving kristol's 1972 book crystallized neoconservatism.[19] fukuyama was active in the project for the new american century think tank starting in 1997, and as a member co-signed the organization's 1998 letter recommending that president bill clinton support iraqi insurgencies in the overthrow of then-president of iraq saddam hussein.[20] he was also among forty co-signers of william kristol's september 20, 2001 letter to president george w. bush after the september 11, 2001 attacks that suggested the u.s. not only "capture or kill osama bin laden", but also embark upon "a determined effort to remove saddam hussein from power in iraq".[21] in a new york times article from february 2006, fukuyama, in considering the ongoing iraq war, stated: "what american foreign policy needs is not a return to a narrow and cynical realism, but rather the formulation of a 'realistic wilsonianism' that better matches means to ends."[22] in regard to neoconservatism he went on to say: "what is needed now are new ideas, neither neoconservative nor realist, for how america is to relate to the rest of the world – ideas that retain the neoconservative belief in the universality of human rights, but without its illusions about the efficacy of american power and hegemony to bring these ends about."[22] fukuyama's current views fukuyama began to distance himself from the neoconservative agenda of the bush administration, citing its excessive militarism and embrace of unilateral armed intervention, particularly in the middle east. by late 2003, fukuyama had voiced his growing opposition to the iraq war[23] and called for donald rumsfeld's resignation as secretary of defense.[24] at an annual dinner of the american enterprise institute in february 2004, dick cheney and charles krauthammer declared the beginning of a unipolar era under american hegemony. "all of these people around me were cheering wildly,"[25] fukuyama remembers. he believes that the iraq war was being blundered. "all of my friends had taken leave of reality."[25] he has not spoken to paul wolfowitz (previously a good friend) since.[25] fukuyama declared he would not be voting for bush,[26] and that the bush administration had made three major mistakes:[citation needed] overstating the threat of radical islam to the us failing to foresee the fierce negative reaction to its "benevolent hegemony". from the very beginning showing a negative attitude toward the united nations and other intergovernmental organizations and not seeing that it would increase anti-americanism in other countries misjudging what was needed to bring peace in iraq and being overly optimistic about the success with which social engineering of western values could be applied to iraq and the middle east in general. fukuyama believes the us has a right to promote its own values in the world, but more along the lines of what he calls "realistic wilsonianism", with military intervention only as a last resort and only in addition to other measures. a latent military force is more likely to have an effect than actual deployment. the us spends 43% of global military spending,[27] but iraq shows there are limits to its effectiveness. the us should instead stimulate political and economic development and gain a better understanding of what happens in other countries. the best instruments are setting a good example and providing education and, in many cases, money. the secret of development, be it political or economic, is that it never comes from outsiders, but always from people in the country itself. one thing the us proved to have excelled in during the aftermath of world war ii was the formation of international institutions. a return to support for these structures would combine american power with international legitimacy. but such measures require a lot of patience. this is the central thesis of his 2006 work america at the crossroads. in a 2006 essay in the new york times magazine strongly critical of the invasion, he identified neoconservatism with leninism. he wrote that neoconservatives:[28] believed that history can be pushed along with the right application of power and will. leninism was a tragedy in its bolshevik version, and it has returned as farce when practiced by the united states. neoconservatism, as both a political symbol and a body of thought, has evolved into something i can no longer support. fukuyama announced the end of the neoconservative moment and argued for the demilitarization of the war on terrorism:[28] [w]ar is the wrong metaphor for the broader struggle, since wars are fought at full intensity and have clear beginnings and endings. meeting the jihadist challenge is more of a "long, twilight struggle" [quoting john f. kennedy's inaugural address] whose core is not a military campaign but a political contest for the hearts and minds of ordinary muslims around the world. fukuyama endorsed barack obama in the 2008 us presidential election. he states:[29] i'm voting for barack obama this november for a very simple reason. it is hard to imagine a more disastrous presidency than that of george w. bush. it was bad enough that he launched an unnecessary war and undermined the standing of the united states throughout the world in his first term. but in the waning days of his administration, he is presiding over a collapse of the american financial system and broader economy that will have consequences for years to come. as a general rule, democracies don't work well if voters do not hold political parties accountable for failure. while john mccain is trying desperately to pretend that he never had anything to do with the republican party, i think it would be a travesty to reward the republicans for failure on such a grand scale. affiliations between 2006 and 2008, fukuyama advised muammar gaddafi as part of the monitor group, a consultancy firm based in cambridge, ma.[30] in august 2005, fukuyama co-founded the american interest, a quarterly magazine devoted to the broad theme of "america in the world". he is currently chairman of the editorial board.[11] fukuyama was a member of the rand corporation's political science department from 1979 to 1980, 1983 to 1989, and 1995 to 1996. he is now a member of the board of trustees.[11] fukuyama was a member of the president's council on bioethics from 2001 to 2004.[11] fukuyama is a fellow of the world academy of art and science (waas). fukuyama is on the steering committee for the scooter libby legal defense trust.[31] fukuyama is a long-time friend of libby. they served together in the state department in the 1980s. fukuyama is a member of the board of counselors for the pyle center of northeast asian studies at the national bureau of asian research.[32] fukuyama is on the board of global financial integrity. fukuyama is on the executive board of the inter-american dialogue. personal life fukuyama is a part-time photographer. he also has a keen interest in early-american furniture, which he reproduces by hand.[33] he is keenly interested in sound recording and reproduction, saying, "these days i seem to spend as much time thinking about gear as i do analyzing politics for my day job."[25] fukuyama is married to laura holmgren, whom he met when she was a ucla graduate student after he started working for the rand corporation.[8][11] he dedicated his book trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity to her. they live in california, with their three children, julia, david, and john away in school. see also daniel bell selected bibliography scholarly works (partial list) the soviet union and iraq since 1968, rand research report, 1980 books the end of history and the last man. free press, 1992. isbn 0-02-910975-2 trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity. free press, 1995. isbn 0-02-910976-0 the great disruption: human nature and the reconstitution of social order. free press. 1999. isbn 0-684-84530-x our posthuman future: consequences of the biotechnology revolution. new york, ny: farrar, straus and giroux. 2002. isbn 0-374-23643-7 state-building: governance and world order in the 21st century. ithaca, ny: cornell university press. 2004. isbn 0-8014-4292-3 america at the crossroads: democracy, power, and the neoconservative legacy. new haven, ct: yale university press. 2006. isbn 0-300-11399-4 us edition after the neo cons: where the right went wrong. london: profile books. 2006. isbn 1-86197-922-3 uk edition falling behind: explaining the development gap between latin america and the united states (editor). new york, ny: oxford university press. 2008. isbn 978-0-19-536882-6 the origins of political order. new york, ny: farrar, straus and giroux. 2011. isbn 978-1-846-68256-8 political order and political decay: from the industrial revolution to the globalization of democracy. new york: farrar, straus and giroux. 2014. isbn 978-0-374-22735-7 essays the end of history?, the national interest, summer 1989 women and the evolution of world politics, foreign affairs october 1998 immigrants and family values, the immigration reader 1998. isbn 1-55786-916-2 human nature and the reconstruction of social order, the atlantic monthly, may 1999 social capital and civil society, paper prepared for delivery at the international monetary fund conference on second generation reforms, october 1, 1999 the neoconservative moment, the national interest, summer 2004 after neoconservatism, the new york times magazine, february 19, 2006 supporter's voice now turns on bush, the new york times magazine, march 14, 2006 why shouldn't i change my mind?, los angeles times, april 9, 2006 the fall of america, inc. newsweek, october 13, 2008 the new nationalism and the strategic architecture of northeast asia asia policy january 2007 left out, the american interest, january 2011 is china next?, the wall street journal, march 12, 2011 the future of history; can liberal democracy survive the decline of the middle class?, foreign affairs, january/february 2012 what is governance? governance (journal), march 2013
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