검색어: tio tu ya sabes que nos mudaremos (영어 - 스페인어)

error, como sabes que no lo hizo ya antes?
error, como sabes que no lo hizo ya antes?

introduction sustainability and sustainable development are two terms that are frequently used in academic articles and books, in research, in policy documents and in the daily press. much has been written about the terms and the practical use of the concept of sustainable development. but as one goes more and more into the different discussions about sustainability and sustainable development it becomes clear that there are also contradictions and many different arguments about the use of the terms and how they can or should be applied in research and practical work or policy documents. due to the broad application of the terms it is of interest, when dealing with research about sustainability and sustainable development, to get a deeper understanding of what the terms mean and what complications and contradictions there are when dealing with those terms. aim this literature review will focus not only on sustainability and sustainable development in general, but more specifically in an urban context. the urban context is also of special interest, because much of the practical work in sustainability is set in an urban context and done by urban politicians and planners. today more than half of the earth’s population is living in cities and urban regions and this will in the future, according to the united nations, continue. cities are growing, especially in the developing world, which makes sustainability and sustainable development even more interesting when those terms are put in an urban context (banister 2005). this study is part of the work of the swedish research group hasta (sustainable and attractive city), and focus on swedish conditions. the aim of this literature search and review is to make an overview of how sustainability and sustainable development is defined today and what implications can be connected with sustainability generally and with urban planning more specifically and what the consequences are. the goal with this study is also to get an idea of the contradictions of the terms sustainability and sustainable development in scientific research. furthermore, the aim is to highlight critical research and critical discussions about the oppositions of the terms sustainability and sustainable development. this study seeks to analyze the general aspects of sustainability and sustainable development, but also highlight the difference between mainstream forms of sustainability and sustainable development and critical discussions about the two terms, in order to give a complete picture of what sustainability and sustainable development is. important questions are: how is sustainability and sustainable development defined today? what are the controversies with the definitions and the use of the concept of sustainability and sustainable development in urban planning? method the field of sustainability and sustainable development is very large today and there is a wide range of reports, articles and books. it is of course impossible to look through all of the literature. therefore delimitations, exclusions and selections must be done. this work focuses mainly on an urban context in connection with sustainability and sustainable development. i tried to get a grip of the more important aspects of the sustainability literature, which include the critical discussions about the contradictions and the term itself and how sustainability and sustainable development is defined today. the literature search was carried out through a systematic search in the scientific search engine elin from lund university and transguide, a search engine from vti (the swedish national road and transport research institute). the keywords for the search in elin were sustaina* and urban (3315 hits). furthermore a search was carried out with the words sustaina* and urban and social or econom* or ecolog* (3315 hits) and finally sustaina* and city or cities (61077 hits). in this search the number of hits was very large, therefore not all found articles could be analyzed. the articles that seem more theoretical and include more general discussions about sustainability and sustainable development in an urban context were selected. for transgudie the key words were mainly the same, sustaina* and urban (0 hits), sustaina* and city or cities (130 hits), sustaina* and social (0 hits), sustaina and econom* (0 hits) and sustaina* and ecolog* (0 hits), but in transguide were no hits for those key words. this systematic literature search was only one part. much of the literature was also found in the references from articles and books, but also through personal contact with other researchers and earlier studies. sustainability and sustainable development today, sustainability and sustainable development play a major role in discussions, research and planning. krueger and gibbs say that: “the discourse of sustainability is being more widely deployed as an urban and regional development strategy than ever before.” (krueger and gibbs 2007: 1) however, the dominating position of the concept sustainability and sustainable development is not without criticism. much has been written on sustainability since the term sustainable development was launched by iucn, unep and wwf in 1980 in their report “world conservation strategy: living resource conservation for sustainable development”. in 1981 lester brown took up the threat in his book “building a sustainable society” where he describes several environmental problems and how we can solve them in order to create a more sustainable society (brown 1981). but the term sustainable development became more common and a “bandwagon” for many western scientist and politicians with the report “our common future” written by the world commission on environment and development, also called the brundtland commission and published in 1987. in this report the commission states that: “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (world commission on environment and development 1987: 43) zundeau (2005) defines sustainable development as “current development should not harm the interests of future generations” (zundeau 2005: 461), which comes very close to the definition of the brundtland commissions version of sustainable development. further the term sustainable development and sustainability implies today three different aspects or dimensions of sustainability, namely social, economic and ecological or environmental/ecological sustainability. those dimensions are the basic element of sustainability and sustainable development (munier 2005, basiago 1999). it is also important to notice that sustainability sometimes can be seen as sustaining the present. that is not what sustainability is about and not what it should be about. sustaining the current situation would mean that the destruction of the environment and inequalities should go on like they are (see buckingham 2007). the three aspects of sustainability are used in different ways. the most vital discussions about the terms sustainability and sustainable development and the theoretical use are most often carried out by critical scientists. they examine the relation between economic solutions and ecological and social problems. much of the research in the economic and ecological field of sustainability is more “hands on” research with focus on the environmental problems and solutions to those problems. ecological sustainability ecological sustainability, often also called environmental sustainability, in an urban context often means in-field measurements, for example of air pollution, like in the article “life satisfaction and air quality in london” (2008) by mackerron and mourato, or, on a more regional level studies about the industrial metabolism, which means the material flows and transformations caused by different industries. in many articles the term environmental sustainability is not discussed, rather it is focused on direct environmental problems. although the mentioned article about air quality in london connects ecological and economic measurements with social aspects, it has no theoretical discussion about ecological sustainability (mackerron and mourato 2008). generally, ecological sustainability can be described as “environmental protection” (munier 2005: 10). as examples of ecological sustainable research can be mentioned the book “old sins – industrial metabolism, heavy metal pollution, and environmental transition in central europe” (2000) by anderberg et al. which focuses on material flows of heavy industries and environmental destruction in central europe. however, the term sustainable development is not theoretically analyzed and there is no discussion about sustainability as a concept, but rather a focus on real environmental problems (anderberg et al. 2000). another example on ecological sustainability research is the article by priewasser (1999) “ecological sustainability and personal behavior: relations demonstrated by the decision-making process of selecting a certain transportation mean” which also has a connection to transportation. priewasser examines different models for ecological-oriented traffic modes and different aspects for the car-use. even though the article, as the book by anderberg et al., has a theoretical frame, much builds on ecological or psychological theories on people’s choice of transport mode and which mode is better for the environment, but there is no theoretical discussion about what ecological sustainability is (priewasser 1999). the same conclusion can be drawn from other research works focusing on environmental problems and ecological sustainability such as the article “global change and the ecology of cities” (2008) by grimm et al. where different environmental problems are analyzed in an urban context, but the term ecological sustainability is not further theoretically discussed (grimm et al. 2008). one could therefore say that ecological sustainability builds on scientific evidence of environmental problems and the analysis of those problems (ekins et al. 2008). the article “modelling the carrying capacity of urban ecosystem” (2008) by xu et al, offers a more theoretical perspective on ecological sustainability. the authors explain ecological sustainability through the urban ecological system that connects social-economic-natural/ecological aspects to a complex system. it is this system that must be sustainable and in order to analyze that the authors use the concept of the carrying city, which for example means how much pollution a city can carry, to develop a theoretical model that can be used in analyzing urban ecological sustainability. this theory can be seen in connection with the utopian vision of the ecocity which connects all aspects of sustainable development (xu et al. 2008). blewitt’s book “understanding sustainability” (2008) offers a general overview of sustainability and sustainable development and also over the ecological dimensions of those terms. first of all, blewitt divides the actors who define sustainable development into four groups, namely market liberals, bio-environmentalists, institutionalists and social greens. those groups differ much in their opinions about how to act sustainable and what measurements should be taken in order to create a sustainable society or sustainable development (blewitt 2008). blewitt defines deep and shallow approaches to ecological sustainability, which means that in different areas like pollution, resources and the like there can be actors defining solutions on a deep ecological scale or on a shallow one. this also means that there are not only ideological differences between the approaches in ecological sustainability but also practical differences when it comes to the point of how far we want to go in environmental protection. those different groups act of course differently and they often oppose each other. the deeper approaches are often connected with the social green and bio-environmentalists groups, and they criticize not only the environmental destruction in the world, but also the economic system and globalization, which in their opinion is highly connected to environmental problems and ecological sustainability. it is also here we find more radical analyses about the state of the world. the analyses are, however, not limited to the effects of for example pollution on humans, but rather take the whole biosphere into account, which also means effects on animal-life, climate, the whole flora and fauna and the like. when it comes to the shallow approaches they can be connected to the market-liberals and institutionalists groups, which promote stronger regulations to correct the free market, technological progress and more market oriented solutions to today’s ecological problems. furthermore there are also theoretical approaches to ecological sustainability in form of eco-feminism, bio-regionalism and social ecology, which form the basis of the approaches of the social green and the bio-environmentalists. but they also criticize the deep ecological approaches for missing the link between social and ecological thinking. they see social aspects as the most important ones. moreover a focus on only ecology is not the solution because the environmental problems can only be solved together with social problems. in blewitt’s book one can find a theoretical discussion about ecological sustainability that also connects it with economic and social sustainability in different ways (blewitt 2008). to conclude on the ecological dimension of sustainability, it became clear that there are different approaches and many different practical solutions proposed in different articles when it comes to ecological sustainable development. only a few authors have theoretical discussions in their work about the term ecological sustainability. furthermore there are many different views of what ecological sustainability is. this contributes to the different interpretations of sustainability and sustainable development. economic sustainability the literature about economic sustainable development is in the theoretical dimension similar to the literature about ecological sustainable development, which means more “hands on” concepts that build on development theory and theories from economics that show how cities, regions or states can create sustainable economic development and economic progress. but the difference between ecological and economic sustainability is that the theoretical approaches in economic sustainability are grounded on more general theoretical models and views than ecological sustainability. the term economic sustainability can be defined as economic growth and economic progress, although as munier (2005) says “economic growth does not necessarily mean a better living...” (munier 2005: 17) what munier further means is that economic sustainable development is growth that puts the profit into action in order to create a more sustainable society, such as higher wages, ecological modernization, more effective technologies and so on. but the economic growth or progress must be sustainable also for future generations, so that also those generations can have work and economic progress (munier 2005, ekins et al. 2008). that means that natural capital, which cannot be replaced by human-made capital should be preserved also for future generations. it is also important to mention that economic progress is important for questions of welfare and therefore also for social sustainability. the economic aspects are often analyzed with theories from classical economics and much builds on the development of new technologies which still continue to generate economic growth and progress, but with less effect on the environment and the earth’s eco-systems. one could therefore say that this economic dimension often has a technocratic approach to environmental problems (blewitt 2008). what economic sustainability also means is growth in productivity and economic development. this should finally lead to the so called trickle down effect, which means that in the end even the poorer parts of the society, will gain from economic growth, through for example the creation of jobs and more taxes for welfare. economic sustainable development means also that not only monetary capital must be considered but also natural and social. this theoretical framework comes from development theory in economics, which is also why solutions are often seen in more market and the problems often seen as market failures (basiago 1999). there are theoretical models that try to combine the different aspects of sustainability, from an economic point of view. one of those models is the four-capital-model, which helps to evaluate if regions or cities develop in a sustainable way. this model comes from economics and builds on social, manufactured, human and natural capital. the analysis builds on the flows of benefits, which are generated by the different capitals (ekins et al. 2008). this means in connection to sustainable development: “meeting human needs and increasing quality of life (through consumption, satisfying work, good health, rewarding personal relationships and well functioning social institutions, and the full range of environmental goods and services) may be regarded as resulting from the flows delivered by the capital stocks. doing so sustainably requires that these capital stocks are maintained or increased over time.” (ekins et al. 2008: 66) in conclusions one could say that economic sustainability sees the solutions of the earth’s problems (both social and ecological) in the market, which generate both competition and trickle down effects. the research in this field is also, like in ecological sustainability, more about practical aspects, but it has often 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