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em
em

معمولترین نوع آن en dash (–) و em dash (—) است.
===en dash versus em dash===the en dash is wider than the hyphen but not as wide as the em dash.

1- اگر مقدار کشش درآمدی منفی باشد 0>em گفته می شود این کالا پست است.
if income elasticity of demand of a commodity is less than 1, it is a necessity good.

"cinema em azul, branco e vermelo: a trilogia de kieslowski".
"cinema em azul, branco e vermelo: a trilogia de kieślowski".

در مقایسه با بسیاری از کشورهای جهان ، آلمان به شدت تحت تأثیر بلایای طبیعی قرار نمی گیرد. با این وجود ، این بدان معنا نیست که عاری از اثرات منفی چنین رویدادهایی نیست. از آنجا که آلمان دارای پایگاه داده ملی تلفات فاجعه نیست ، آمار مربوط به فرکانس ها و اثرات حوادث نادر است و باید بازیابی شود ، به عنوان مثال از پایگاه داده جهانی و در دسترس عموم em dat1 ، که در آن ، با این وجود ، سوگیری های ضبط ممکن است به دلیل آستانه های ورود خاص رخ دهد. تغییرات موقتی در پوشش
compared to many countries in the world, germany is not heavily affected by natural disasters. nonetheless, this does not mean that it is free from the adverse impacts of such events. since germany has no national disaster loss database, statistics on disaster frequencies and impacts are rare and have to be retrieved, e.g. from the global and publicly accessible database em-dat1, in which, however, biases of recording might occur due to certain entry thresholds, temporal changes in the coverage due to increasing media reports on disasters or political changes etc. (see gall et al., 2009). for germany, 94 natural events were recorded in emdat between 1900 and 2016, whereof 73 events have occurred since 1990, indicating a temporal bias (at least for the period before 1990). figure 2 (left) reveals that the main hazards that have affected the country are storms (winter and summer), floods and extreme temperatures, particularly cold waves, while heat waves, earthquakes, epidemics, avalanches and wild fires occur occasionally. this picture changes dramatically when it comes to disaster impacts. while the death tolls arising from natural disasters in germany are, fortunately, usually relatively low (although very significant on occasion; see fig. 2 right, approximately 9730 fatalities from 1990 to 2016), the economic losses may be considerable. for example, the worst loss of life from a natural extreme event arose from the august 2003 heatwave which cost the lives of over 9000 people in germany. furthermore, storm surges and windstorms caused comparatively high numbers of fatalities: for example, the february 1962 storm surge saw the loss of 347 people at the north sea, thereof 315 in the city of hamburg. apart from the heatwave in 2003, winter storms continue to be the deadliest hazard in the recent past with more than 200 fatalities between 1990 and 2016, followed by floods and cold waves (see figure 2, right). with regard to economic losses, floods have resulted in the greatest economic losses in the recent past, with the “centennial” august 2002 flood being the worst event causing total losses of eur 11.6 billion. already in may/june 2013, another severe and widespread river flood occurred leading to total losses of around eur 8 billion (thieken et al., 2016). in may/june 2016, severe surface water flooding occurred at several locations and was partly accompanied by flash floods and debris flows, resulting in overall losses of eur 2.6 billion (munich re 2017), an unprecedented amount caused by surface water flooding. in addition, storms are frequently causing damage. the most recent and expensive examples are the winter storm “kyrill” in january 2007 causing an interruption of almost the entire railway network in germany and losses of eur 4.2 billion (munich re, pers. comm.) and hailstorms in july 2013 that hit some cities in baden-wurttemberg and lower saxony causing total losses of eur 3.1 billion (gdv 2014).