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in his writings on the topic, vattel did not view equality of undertakings as an essential condition for treaties but rather as a standard that could be deviated from in specific circumstances; relevant factual circumstances could constitute a consideration capable of restoring the equality of the treaty
واتل در نوشتههای خود در این زمینه، برابری تعهدات را شرط اساسی معاهدات نمیدانست، بلکه آن را معیاری میدانست که در شرایط خاص میتوان از آن عدول کرد. شرایط واقعی مربوطه می تواند ملاحظاتی باشد که بتواند برابری معاهده را بازگرداند
Последнее обновление: 2023-05-26
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protocol analysis relies on the verbal accounts given by participants of their own cognitive activities. one of the most direct ways in which we can try to know what is going on inside people’s heads is by asking them to tell us what they are thinking. of course, this is fraught with difficulties. people do not necessarily know what is going on inside their own heads, let alone have the ability to verbalize it. also, there may well be side effects of the verbalization, such that it actually changes the participant’s behaviour and their cognitive performance. or the participant may, quite unintentionally, give irrelevant accounts, reporting parallel but independent thoughts to those that are actually being employed in the task. these disadvantages weigh particularly heavily on the validity of protocol analysis in studying design thinking, where non-verbal processes are a significant feature of the relevant cognitive activities and where the use of sketches and similar externalization of thought processes seem to be fundamental. nevertheless, people do normally find it relatively straightforward to give a verbal account of what they believe they are thinking or what they were thinking recently. retrospective verbal accounts (i.e. recalling what one was thinking recently) offer one means of getting at cognitive activity which is frequently used not only in research but also in everyday interchanges, such as ‘what were you thinking when you were doing that?’ concurrent verbal accounts (i.e. ‘thinking aloud’) offer the researcher the hope that they really do externalize – or allow insight into – at least some of the participants’ cognitive activities. of all the empirical, observational research methods for the analysis of design activity, protocol analysis is the one that has received the most attention and application. it has become regarded as the most likely method to bring out into the open, at least to some extent, the somewhat mysterious skills of design thinking. for this study, victor scheinman was invited to participate in a research project into design thinking. he was told that the research would involve him undertaking a short (two-hour) design exercise, within the engineering product design domain. the experiment was conducted in a design project room supplied with table and chair, drawing pad, pens and pencils and whiteboard, and equipped designing to use 99 with video and audio recording facilities. also in the room were a mountain bicycle and the specific backpack to be used for the design assignment. an experimenter was present in the room, who had a file of various sheets of relevant information and data that victor could ask for if he wanted to. at the start of the experiment, victor was given the design brief, to design a device for carrying a backpack on a mountain bicycle, as in figure 5.1
Последнее обновление: 2023-12-10
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